Craig Gaunt
12/4/08
Church History I
Early Church Period
One of the prime areas the church grew rapidly was in Egypt. Unlike several other regions of the Roman Empire who can trace their churches back to a patron founder, the Coptic (Egyptian) church traces its roots back to Christ Himself and even further back into the Old Testament. They say that Isaiah 19:1, 25 is a prophecy of the church coming to Egypt.[1] Matthew’s gospel records that Joseph and Mary took the child Jesus and fled to Egypt under God’s direction to avoid King Herod’s forces who were trying to kill Him.[2] Herod had grown jealous and fearful when he had heard that the Messiah was to be born in Bethlehem. Today the Coptic Church looks at this event as a missionary prerogative because Jesus did not stay in the borders of Israel but came to Egypt, reminding us that the gospel is meant to be for the whole world.[3]
Traditionally, it has been another gospel writer who has been the founder of the Alexandrian church in Egypt. Eusebius records that it was Mark who had worked in Egypt and had established churches there in 62 A.D.[4] This account is highly disputed because both Alexandrian fathers Clement and Origen make no mention of it, and St. Jerome, Epiphanius, and Eusebius disagree about when he actually visited.[5] Regardless, the church in Alexandria flourished, and, unlike much of the rest of the church that became predominately Gentile, it stayed very Jewish in its early years.[6] This Jewish strand is similar to the early churches in Jerusalem and Antioch.
Alexandria was the second largest city in the Roman Empire, had a very large Jewish population led by Philo Judaeus, and was very philosophical in their faith.[7] This is the field in which the earliest Christian preaching in Egypt started. It is startling that Christianity grew in such areas because these communities were extremely closed and able to stay unabsorbed by the surrounding area, which was in contrast to Rome’s Jewish population.[8] This fact is evidence that the early Christians in Alexandria are more comparable to modern-day messianic Jews than modern Christians. It also leads us to question the common assumption that Egyptian Christianity was/is Gnostic in its theology. The shift from Jewish-Christianity to a more predominately Gentile strand came after a Jewish rebellion against Emperor Trajan from 115-117.[9] After this rebellion, persecution of Jews became widespread throughout the empire and Christians who closely resembled Jews were also subject to destruction.[10]
As much as the gospel spread through urban areas like Alexandria, it did not catch on so well in the Egyptian countryside because these people spoke native Egyptian.[11] By the beginning of the fourth century, parts of the Bible began to be translated into non-Greek vernaculars like Coptic, a language that was a medium between Egyptian hieroglyphics and Greek.[12] Interestingly enough, North African Christianity produced the first Latin speaking churches in the world, setting the precedence that Latin would be the church’s universal language.[13] This language was used by the church in the singing of their masses until Vatican II when it was permitted to sing in native tongues.
Famous Figures
With its philosophical flavor, Alexandria bred some of the most influential thinkers in Christian history, and these same men went on to form much of the theology in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Clement of Alexandria student under a converted stoic named Pantaenus in 185 A.D. It was stated above that it is incorrect to label the early Egyptian Christians as solely Gnostics. Rather, Pantaenus started a school in Alexandria that asked the big, looming questions of life but answered them with Christian Orthodoxy.[14] Likewise, his student Clement was also a philosopher and evangelist who knew the Bible and classical Greek literature and philosophy, a unique combination of the time since some of the church was mistrustful of pagan philosophy.[15] Clement, however, viewed that it was a Christian’s responsibility to work on changing an unbeliever’s worldview by taking their questions and presumptions and then introducing them to the Christian meta-narrative.[16] Rather that look a philosophy negatively, Clement said that it instructed the Greeks similar to the Law instructing the Hebrews, and both laid the respective foundations for Christ to be preached.[17] It was with this attitude that Clement stressed loving God with your entire mind. With his emphasis on philosophy, Clement viewed Scripture as having both a literal and allegorical meaning.
Another thinker whose significance cannot be overlooked is Origen. Origen lived around the turn of the second century and was one of the most prolific philosophers of the early Christian church. He teachings to would-be members of the church went far beyond the basics of typical catechesis, and Eusebius records that he taught more advanced students, already Christians, and even non-believers.[18] He also says that Origen was already the head of the catechetical school by eighteen years old.[19] Both Clement and Origen put a high emphasis on moral behavior, contrary to Gnostic thought which negatively emphasized the body.[20] Although Origin knew a great deal about philosophy, literature, and theology, it was his study of the Scriptures that drew much fame and, for better or worse, notoriety. He regarded the exposition of, and correct interpretation of, the Scriptures to be his chief goal. As one can see, Origen wanted to combat the common practice of taking only a few Scripture verses and twisting them into a perverse theology. Rather, his aim was the entirety of Scripture.
Like Clement, he viewed the Scripture as having a deeper meaning than just surface literalism, and he encouraged his students to seek this deeper spiritual truth. As one author put it, “[he] tried to find Christ on every page.”[21] A fine example of his allegorical methodology is in a homily on the book of Judges in which he writes against greed as a form of idolatry.[22] As stated earlier, Alexandria was a center of philosophy. With this in mind, it is no surprise that Origen was the first to coin the term “God-man” when referring to Jesus.[23] What landed him in hot water was his development of a universalism theology, which states that everyone, regardless of belief will be saved. Both Clement and Origen set the example of what Paul talked about when he said to “be all things to all people so that through the Gospel I might win some.”[24]
Next, we turn to someone who has been called the first Christian monk, Anthony. Egypt already had a few centers of monasticism, and each center had its distinct practices. In 250 A.D. Based on Matt.19:21, Anthony sold all of his possessions, gave them to the poor, and became a desert hermit, living a life of spiritual struggle, prayer, and meditation.[25] He and other Desert Fathers set the example to which others would come to follow. They strove to experience the true reality of God and wage spiritual warfare within the solitude of the wilderness.[26] However, this solitude did not last and many fathers, including Anthony, were frequently visited and sought after for wisdom. He taught that the path leading to virtue was within the human self.[27] There are certainly other important figures that could be noted in the Coptic Church but space is limited.
Finally, there is one father who has been said to have defeated a dangerous heresy that still continues in some form today. Athanasius lived during the 300s and wrote extensively against the heresy of Arian, a theologian who said that Jesus was only a man and not God. In 320 A.D. a synod was called to condemn Arian’s teachings.[28] This debate would necessitate a Council of Nicea in 325 A.D. which finally formally affirmed Christ’s divinity and drew up a creed stating it. As bishop of Alexandria, Athanasius had been exiled five times because of his refusal to adopt Arianism and returned each time. Although a council had decided formally on the issue, Arianism still spread throughout the empire, and Athanasius spent excessive amounts of energy writing against it. Even in the face of an Arian bishops and imperial opposition (especially by Constantine’s son Constantius who had sympathy for Arianism), Athanasius stood tall and has been called the savior of Christian orthodoxy.[29]
Crucial Events
One important happening that took place in Alexandria was the Council of Chalcedon in 451 A.D., which discussed the questions regarding the two natures of Jesus: human and divine. As philosophical as Alexandria was, it is no surprised that it stressed the divine attributes of Jesus, sometimes at the expense of the human. They argued that two complete natures could not exist within one man. Rather, the logos took the place of the rational, human mind within Jesus. This teaching became later known as Monophysitism that says the divine nature overrules the human nature so much that Jesus only needed the human nature to appear human. In other words, Jesus had only one nature not two. The council was not about to grant that position so the Coptic Church walked out on the council and distanced themselves from the larger orthodox church.[30] Relations did not improve over time because neither Rome nor Constantinople was willing to provide help to the Copts, even when they were threatened by Arab invaders. With this estrangement, it allowed the church to grow closer to the Egyptian people that it had inadvertently neglected during its close ties with Rome.[31] Anthony and the first Coptic monks were able to reach the Egyptian countryside with their lifestyle and their presentation of the gospel.[32]
It is here that it can be said that the most substantial practice or observance the Coptic Church gave to the whole church is monasticism. Monasticism grew in an age where Christians were no longer being persecuted so martyrdom was not an option. Monasticism replaced martyrdom and was seen as the way for deeper spirituality away from the sinful, half-hearted Christendom that permeated the Empire after Constantine’s edicts. It also took a stand against Roman Christian imperialism because the church had become united with the government. Those who sought monasticism wanted to rely on no one but God for everything, and the state backing the church that was not possible. Indeed, becoming a monk meant you were an enemy of the world, and it is still with this martyr-like mentality that the Coptic calendar begins in 248 which is the “Year of the Martyrs”.[33]
This is how the larger church found its vitality and the monks, whether they knew it or not, became missionary figures. Through them the church grew and became solidified because they embodied the call of Jesus to take up their crosses and follow Him. Interestingly enough, people of all stripes followed these seekers into the desert; among them were peasants, shepherds, camel traders, slaves, and prostitutes.[34] By becoming a monk, you strove to purify your values and keep them away from being tainted by the world because any mixing of the two led to lethal results. Coptic monasticism in Lower Egypt required that you live totally separate from other human contact, while cenobitic monasticism found in Upper Egypt under Pachomius involved large communities. These communities would be involved in manual labor, worship, and the study of the Bible.
The monastic outlook of manual labor being almost a spiritual discipline is worth noting as well. Manual labor meant self-support, the battle against passions and sinful temptations, service, and ascetical value.[35] Because monasticism entailed one take a value of poverty, all one had to live on would be either donations or the sweat of one’s brow. Since, common sense would say that donations in the desert would be scarce, manual labor would be the only way of survival. While in the desert, one may avoid external temptations but the desert fathers fought against internal passions and to cultivate inner spirituality.[36] They also saw both highly spiritual tasks and mundane work as an offering of service to God, and this led to attacks by the devil against their efforts.[37] These acts of service would be fulfilling both of the greatest commandments of loving God and one’s neighbor.
Troublesome Times
Persians then captured Alexandria in 618/619 and put themselves in control of Egypt. In the 620s, the Byzantine Empire under Emperor Heraclius retook Egypt, but Muslims conquered it in the mid-600s. These conquerors subjected the Coptic Christians to numerous periods of both peace and sever persecution under Islamic rule.[38] From 950-1350, Christianity was on the decline in Egypt, and particular events stand out.[39] In the 11th century, Christians were persecuted under the insane Caliph Al-Hakim, and he burned churches and caused Christians to suffer under legal and economic hardships.[40] In 1389, large members of those who recanted their faith in Christ were forced to march through Cairo, and they wept because they had abandoned their faith. After they had marched, they were beheaded.[41]
Sadly, the Coptic Church during this time also struggle from within by corrupt bishops and patriarchs who charged fees for duties and services.[42] The Crusades did not help relations between the Copts and larger church either because both the larger church and the Muslim rulers distrusted them and considered them sympathetic to the other side.[43] Therefore, the Latins forbade them to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, which was a common practice during this era. However, these times were not completely barren, and there were some bright spots. The Coptic Church had members of high ranking government status under the Fatimid caliphs (969-1171).[44]
The Coptic Church, as one can see, has had a long and rich history, and it has contributed to the orthodox theology and general practice of the church even today. One can hardly go to any Scriptural point and not find Origen or Clement commenting on it. Were it not for thinkers such as Athanasius, our faith would look starkly different, and we would be denying the Son his rightful place as Lord. The Desert Fathers continue to inspire Christians the world over to seek God with deeper fervor and meaning, even if it entails retreating to the wilderness in order to do so.
[1] Cornelis Hulsman, “Welcoming the Uninvited Savior,” Christianity Today 45 no 15 (December 3, 2001):37.
[2] Matthew 2:13-19 (NIV)
[3] Maurice Assad, “Mission in the Coptic Church: Perspective, Doctrine, and Practice,” International Review of Mission 80 no 318 (April 1991):251-2
[4] L.W. Barnard, “St. Mark and Alexandria” Harvard Theological Review 57 no 2 (April 1964):145
[5] Ibid.
[6] Birger A Pearson, “Cracking a Conundrum: Christian Origins in Egypt” Studia Theologica 57 (2003):62
[7] Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language 2nd ed. (Word Publishing, 1995), 32
[8] Alistair Stewart-Sykes, “Origen, Demetrius, and the Alexandrian Presbyters” St. Vladimir’s Theological Quarterly 48 no 4 (2004):419
[9] Pearson, 62
[10] Ibid.
[11] Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christianity Vol. 1: Beginnings to 1500s (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1975), 77
[12] Ibid, pg. 250
[13] Shelley, 31
[14] Ibid. 180
[15] Ibid. 181
[16] Ibid.
[17] Ibid. pg. 82
[18] Stewart-Sykes, 415
[19] Ibid. 417
[20] Bryan M. Shelley, Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction (Michigan: Brazos, 2007): 82
[21] Litfin, 143
[22] Walter J. Burghardt, “Mine and Thine in the Early Church” The Living Pulpit 6 no 3 (July-Sept 1997): 9.
[23] Ibid. 110
[24] 1 Cor. 9:22 (NIV)
[25] Everett Ferguson, Church History Vol. 1:From Christ to Pre-Reformation (Grand Rapids, Michigan, Zondervan 2005), 229.
[26] John W. De Gruchy, “From Cairo to the Cape: The Significane of Coptic Orthodoxy for African Christianity” Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 99 (Nov. 1997): 28
[27] Maurice Assad, 254-255
[28] Shelley, 101
[29] Litfin, 169, 172
[30] Arthur F. Glasser, “Blessed be Egypt My People” Missiology 5 no 4 (Oct. 1977): 404
[31] De Gruchy 27
[32] Ibid. 30
[33] Ibid. 29
[34] Bradley Nassif, “Poverty of Love,” Christianity Today 52 no 5 (May 2008): 36, 37.
[35] Charles A. Metteer, “’Mary Needs Martha’: The Purposes of Manual Labor in Early Egyptian Monasticism,” St. Vladimir’s Theological Quarterly 43 no 2 (1999):165.
[36] Ibid. 178
[37] Ibid. 187
[38] Latourette, 611
[39] Ibid. 587
[40] Ibid.
[41] Ibid. 611
[42] Ibid. 587
[43] Ferguson, 418
[44] Ibid. 350